Cellular Networks Example For Free - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 10 Words: 2966 Downloads: 3 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Telecommunication Essay Type Essay any type Tags: Network Essay Did you like this example? Introduction Computers and computer networks have changed the way in which we live, run our lives, communicate with each other and the way we work and produce what makes every commercial organisation function and reach success within its field, and in the same time, continue on the path of that success. The computers as stand-alone machines, or as separated ones, are nothing more than advanced computing machines, but what was required in reality is a way to link all the computers with each other and to allow users to have simultaneous access to databases and information; and this is why networks had to be created. Tanenbaum (2003, p.2) explains this fact by stating that â€Å"The merging of computers and communications has had a profound influence on the way computer systems are organized. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Cellular Networks Example For Free" essay for you Create order The concept of the ‘computer centre as a room with a large computer to which users bring their work for processing is now totally obsolete. The old model of a single computer serving all of the organizations computational needs has been replaced by one in which a large number of separate but interconnected computers do the job. These systems are called computer networks.† The main principle behind Computer networking is the communication between two or more computer systems. Computers within a network might be close to one another (such as the case with Bluetooth for example) or hundreds of kilometres away from each other (through the Internet). The first important step in this field came in 1984, when a completely digitalised, circuit-switched telephony system was introduced; this system was called ISDN; which stands for Integrated Services Digital Network for voice and non-voice data. After that, BellCore started developing the standard for the Synchronous Op tical Network (SONET), and by the end of the 1980s, Local Area Networks (LAN) appeared as effective method of transferring data between a number of local computers, which led telephone companies replaces all its analogue multiplexing with digital multiplexing. But it is also essential to point out the element of the Internet; this international linked network, composed of servers and clients all over the world, encouraged the changes in both information technology and mobile computing, and this is why we find most of the indications, whenever we face a new product or application, referring to its characteristics in what concerns wireless connection, Bluetooth link, infrared, and much more. Raidl (2003, p.199) states that â€Å"mobile cellular networks are by far the most common of all public wireless communication systems. One of the basic principles is to re-use radio resources after a certain distance.† Walters and Kritzinger (2004) refer to the fact that mobile technology has turned to become one of the fastest, if not the fastest, growing field in the telecommunications industry. To give a clearer idea about the change brought to the world and to every one of us, we can refer to the comments of Furht and Ilyas (2003), as they state that â€Å"just a few years ago, the only way to access the Internet and the Web was by using wireline desktop and laptop computers. Today, however, users are traveling between corporate offices and customer sites, and there is a great need to access the Internet through wireless devices. The wireless revolution started with wireless phones and continued with Web phones and wireless handheld devices that can access the Internet† Types of network Computer networks can vary according to the purpose for which they were created and depending on the area they are supposed to cover geographically. Computer networks can be one of the following: 1) LAN (Local Area Network) is â€Å"a small interconnection infrastructure that typically uses a shared transmission medium. Because of such factors as the volume of traffic, the level of security, and cost, the network structure in a local area network can be significantly different from that for a wide area network.† And â€Å"LAN is used for communications in a small community in which resources, such as printers, software, and servers, are shared. Each device connected to a LAN has a unique address. Two or more LANs of the same type can also be connected to forward data frames among multiple users of other local area networks† (Mir, 2007, p.102). 2) WAN (Wide Area Network) is â€Å"spans a large geographical area, often a country or continent. It contains a c ollection of machines intended for running user (i.e., application) programs† (Tanenbaum, 2003, p.19). 3) CAN (Campus Area Networks) â€Å"are the enterprise networks that serve number of related structure, as in a large company or a college campus.† Lehtinen, Gangemi, Gangemi Sr, and Russel, 2006, p.182). 4) MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) which â€Å"covers a city. The best-known example of a MAN is the cable television network available in many cities† (Tanenbaum, p.18). 5) HAN (Home Area Network) is â€Å"the connection of a number of devices and terminals in the home on to one or more networks which are themselves connected in such a way that digital information and content can be passed between devices and any access ‘pipe to the home† (Turnbull Garrett, 2003, p.46). Cellular networks In their description of the first cellular radio networks in history, Walters and Kritzinger (2004) state that â€Å"in 1946, the first car-based telephone was set up in St. Louis, Missouri, USA. The system used a single radio transmitter on top of a tall building. A single channel was used, therefore requiring a button to be pushed to talk, and released to listen. This half duplex system is still used by modern day CB radio systems utilized by police and taxi operators. In the 1960s, the system was improved to a two-channel system, called the improved mobile telephone system (IMTS) Cellular radio systems, implemented for the first time in the advanced mobile phone system (AMPS), support more users by allowing reuse of frequencies. AMPS is an analogue system, and is part of first generation cellular radio systems.† Even though it has become one of the most common and popular means of communication between people in the last years, cellular networks still have no spe cific definition; â€Å"Cellular communications has experienced explosive growth in the past two decades. Today millions of people around the world use cellular phones. Cellular phones allow a person to make or receive a call from almost anywhere. Likewise, a person is allowed to continue the phone conversation while on the move. Cellular communications is supported by an infrastructure called a cellular network, which integrates cellular phones into the public switched telephone network† (Zhang and Stojmenovic, 2005, p.654). This difficulty in finding a definition is due to the fact that there are different technologies and networking methods used within the frame of cellular networks. Frantz and Carley (2005, p.5) explain that â€Å"cellular networks are a distinct and important network topology. Although there is a growing body of work referring to cellular networks, there is no complete formal definition. However, there are several papers that seek to describe c haracteristics of cellular networks. Cellular networks are a critical topology to formally characterize, in part, as they are thought to be a common form for covert networks.† Yet, it is possible to find some kind of an explanation of such networks and how they operate: â€Å"Cellular networks use a networked array of transceiver base stations, each located in a cell to cover the networking services in a certain area. Each cell is assigned a small frequency band and is served by a base station. Neighbouring cells are assigned different frequencies to avoid interference. However, the transmitted power is low, and frequencies can be reused over cells separated by large distances† (Mir, 2006 p.42). A cellular network, for it to be considered a functional type of communication network, relies â€Å"on relatively short-range transmitter/ receiver (transceiver) base stations that serve small sections (or cells) of a larger service area. Mobile telephone users co mmunicate by acquiring a frequency or time slot in the cell in which they are located. A master switching centre called the ‘mobile transport serving office (MTSO) links calls between users in different cells and acts as a gateway to the PSTN† (Muller, 2003, p.50) Each cellular network is composed of what is can be referred to as Cells; which are defined by Frantz, and Carley, (2005) as â€Å"a distinct subgroup of actors within a larger cellular network. The presence of at least one cell is fundamental to a networks distinction of being cellular—without at least one cell, a network is not cellular. Empirically, a cell often consists of relatively few actors and has a distinct topology that is effortless to identify visually. The actors in a cell can be partitioned into two distinct but intertwined subgroups, namely the cell-core and the cell-periphery.† Muller (2003) explains that there are no specific sizes for cells within a cellular network, th is is due to the fact that there are many factors that interfere in this element and according to the surrounding environment and obstacles can the cells size be determined: â€Å"Cell boundaries are neither uniform nor constant. The usage density in the area, as well as the landscape, the presence of major sources of interference (e.g., power lines, buildings), and the location of competing carrier cells, contributes to the definition of cell size. Cellular boundaries change continuously, with no limit to the number of frequencies available for transmission of cellular calls in an area. As the density of cellular usage increases, individual cells are split to expand capacity. By dividing a service area into small cells with limited-range transceivers, each cellular system can reuse the same frequencies many times.† According to Muller (2003), a cellular network is composed also of a Master Switching Centre which â€Å"operates similar to a telephone central office and provides links to other offices. The switching centre supports trunk lines to the base stations that establish the cells in the service area. Another component is the transmission channels which are, in most cases, two kinds of channels; a control channel and a traffic channel. And, of course, to close the circle within this network, a cellular phone is needed; â€Å"cellular telephones incorporate a combination of multi-access digital communications technology and traditional telephone technology and are designed to appear to the user as familiar residential or business telephone equipment.† During their evolution and continuing enhancement, cellular networks went through consecutive levels of development; each of them added more power and functionality to the previous one. Zhang and Stojmenovic (2005, p.654) explain that cellular networks have had three stages that are called generations. The first of those generations is analogue in nature. Then, when more cel lular phone subscribers needed to be connected and function simultaneously, digital TDMA (time division multiple access) and CDMA (code division multiple access) technologies appeared and were put to work; and this was the second stage or what is known as the second generation (2G) which was necessary in order to increase the capacity of the cellular network. â€Å"With digital technologies, digitized voice can be coded and encrypted. Therefore, the 2G cellular network is also more secure.† With the high importance of applications related to the Internet and their continuous growth, many users required more of the their cellular devices. Then the third generation (3G) arrived. 3G â€Å"integrates cellular phones into the Internet world by providing high speed packet-switching data transmission in addition to circuit-switching voice transmission. The 3G cellular networks have been deployed in some parts of Asia, Europe, and the United States since 2002 and will be wi dely deployed in the coming years.† There are some expectations regarding the future for what concerns the fourth generation wireless networks: â€Å"These will evolve towards an integrated system, which will produce a common packet-switched (possibly IP-based) platform for wireless systems, offering support for high-speed data applications and transparent integration with the wired networks† (Nicopolitidis, Obaidat, Papadimitriou and Pomportsis, 2003). Cellular networks make use of certain protocols in order to make communication easier between various entities within the limits of the network. A protocol of communication can be defined as a group of rules which correspond to messages that two or more entities communicate between each other within a network. Protocols used for cellular networks are included within the standard which is covering the service. The first and most popular standard for mobile phones is GSM (Global System for Mobile communications). Other standards are CDMA and TDMA. Another important point concerning cellular networks is what can be called Location Management, which is essential for the network to monitor every registered mobile stations location so that the mobile station can be able to connect to the network upon request. It is important to note the similarities between cellular networks and Wireless LANs, but it is also worthwhile noticing the differences between the two: â€Å"Goals for third-generation wireless communication, enunciated in the early 1990s by the International Telecommunications Union Task Group IMT-2000, focused on the first two criteria, bit rate and mobility. Third-generation systems should deliver 2 Mbps to stationary or slowly moving terminals, and at least 144 kbps to terminals moving at vehicular speeds. Meanwhile, WLAN development has confined itself to communications with low-mobility (stationary or slowly moving) terminals, and focused on high-speed data transmission. The relationship of bit rate to mobility in cellular and WLAN systems has been commonly represented in two dimensions† (Furht and Ilyas, 2003, p.33). Wireless data applications With the continuous growth of mobile devices, different services were created in order to widen the range of the functionality of those devices. For such devices to be able to use the newly offered services, specific types of applications had to be created and deployed or installed on the mobile device, may it be a cell-phone, PDA, or a notebook computer. â€Å"Wireless data services use a mix of terrestrial and satellite-based technologies to meet a wide variety of local (in building or campus settings), metropolitan, regional, national, and international communication needs A number of wireless data applications, in fact, are being designed with fixed users in mind† (Office of Technology Assessment, 1995). To be able to understand how wireless data applications work, it is necessary to have a comprehensive view concerning their delivery methods; as a matter of fact, there are two main delivery methods: â€Å"There are two fundamental information delivery methods f or wireless data applications: point-to-point access and broadcast. In point-to-point access, a logical channel is established between the client and the server. Queries are submitted to the server and results are returned to the client in much the same way as in a wired network. In broadcast, data are sent simultaneously to all users residing in the broadcast area. It is up to the client to select the data it wants† (Zomaya, 2002) Wireless data applications can be divided into two main groups: Messaging and Remote Access. â€Å"Messaging applications can generally tolerate low throughput and long transmission delays. Electronic mail (e-mail) often fits this category, but not always, messages with attached files may strain the capacity of wireless messaging networks,† then there is Remote access which is required to allow access to the resources and services of a network from outside the geographical barriers of the physical establishment of that network (Brods ky, 1997). Conclusion Throughout this paper, understanding the information presented within it fully, it is accurate to state that a cellular network is definable correctly by presenting the following: â€Å"We define a cellular network as a single-component and undirected network of actors and their relationships, strictly consisting entirely of actors who are members of a specific cell, as previously defined; thus a network in which all actors are a member of a cell. For a network to be considered cellular, these conditions must be met: (a) the ties making up the relations in the network may only be undirected, (b) the network consists of a single component, e.g., there are no isolate actors, and (c) the network consists solely of cell subgroups that are connected via spanning ties, e.g., there are no actor in the network who is not a member of a cell subgroup† (Frantz and Carley, 2005, p.10) As for wireless data applications, in 1997 Brodsky stated that if such application are to becom e widespread and popular exactly as the simple mobile phones were in the end of the 1990s, users should become â€Å"readily and reliably send and receive data over paging, cellular and PCs†. And as we can see today, that phase is exactly what we experience today; ten years after the author wrote those words. Reference List Brodsky, I. (1997). Wireless Computing: A Managers Guide To Wireless Networking. New York, New York: John Wiley Sons, Inc. Furht, B. and Ilyas, M. (2003) Wireless Internet Handbook—Technologies, Standards, and Applications, Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press LLC. Frantz, T. and Carley, K. (2005) A Formal Characterization of Cellular Networks, CASOS Report, [Online] September. Available at: https://cos.cs.cmu.edu/publications/papers/CMU-ISRI-05-109.pdf Lehtinen, R., Gangemi, G. Gangemi, G Sr., and Russel, D. (2006) Computer Security Basics, Sebastopol, California: OReilly Associates. Mir, N. (2007) Computer and Communication Networks, Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc. Muller, N. (2003) Wireless A to Z, New York, New York: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Nicopolitidis, P., Obaidat, M., Papadimitriou, G. and Pomportsis, A. (2003) Wireless Networks, West Sussex, England: John Wiley Sons Ltd. Office of Technology Assessment Congress of the United States. (1995) Wireless technologies and the national information infrastructure. Washington, DC: DIANE Publishing. Raidl, G. (2003) Applications of Evolutionary Computing, Berlin, Germany: Springer. Tanenbaum, A. (2003) Computer Networks, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc. Turnbull, J. and Garrett, S. (2003) Broadband Applications and the Digital Home. Stevenage, United Kingdom: The Institution of Electrical Engineers. Walters, L. and Kritzinger, P. (2004) ‘Cellular Networks: Past, Present, and Future, Association for Computing Machinery [Online] Available at: https://www.acm.org/crossroads/xrds7-2/cellular.html Zhang, J. and Stojmenovic, I. (2005) Cellular networks, Handbook on Security (H. Bidgoli, ed.), Vol. I, Part 2, chapter 45, pp.654-663. Zomaya, A. (2002). Handbook of Wireless Networks and Mobile Computing. New York, New York: John Wiley Sons, Inc.

Social Media As an Information Platform for Enterprises

Social Media As An Information Platform for Enterprises Introduction Of the many innovations that the Internet has made possible, social media is proving to be the most disruptive at consumer, enterprise and government levels of societies globally. Customers and citizens have a platform now to voice the opinions and concerns very openly and if they choose, very loudly, on a global stage made possible by social media (Ang, et.al.). It is the most revolutionary series of technologies available today for creating and sustaining more effective relationships with customers as well, leading to the development of an entirely new class of Customer Relationship Management (CRM) systems called Social CRM (SCRM) (Greenberg, 412). In July, 2009 the power of the social media platform became clear to United Airlines, who had a year earlier carelessly tossed Dave Carrolls concert-quality guitar across the tarmac at Chicagos OHare International Airport. 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Market for Human Organs Free Essays

Logan Williams Economics 211 Cupelli 28 February 2013 The Market for Human Organs Richard Knox, a National Public Radio reporter (Richard Knox), states, â€Å"About 75,000 Americans are on the waiting list for kidney transplants. But in the coming year, just 18,000 will get them. † Unfortunately, the transplant list is only growing with each passing year. We will write a custom essay sample on Market for Human Organs or any similar topic only for you Order Now This means that many people will die on the waiting list and those who are lucky enough to get to surgery may not be strong enough to survive the operation because they have been without vital organs for so long. The legalization of the market would cause more people to donate, evening out the difference between donations and needed transfers. Since the demand for human organs is so high people will do everything in their power to get what they need. Often times this leads to people searching the black market. These organs and operations are not only non-sterile, but can be extremely dangerous as the buying and selling conditions are often extremely unsafe. The black market is also known for causing crime, but the offenses committed for human organs a lot of the time involve violent crimes and sometimes murder. The legalization would cause these crimes to almost come to a complete stop. If the human organ market is legalized many more people would be able to get the organs they need. Many more lives would be saved if selling and purchasing organs were legal. Participation in medical research, the selling of blood, eggs, and semen for compensation has become a way for many people to come out of debt or simply have a little bit more money to get by. It only makes sense that if people were given the options to sell their organs more would be involved. With the legalization of the human organ market, people would be more likely to donate their organs knowing that they can get a reward for saving someone’s life. This will help people pay off debts, save money for retirement, or give them more spending money in a safe, reliable way being treated by doctors. When donations are taken after a donor has passed away, the payment would simply be given to a person, institution, or charity chosen by the donor. If it becomes legal to sell organs, it will also become a taxable good, bringing more money into the government. As donation numbers increase, more organs will be available to those in need, and many more lives will be saved. With the increased number of donated body parts, not only will we see direct increases in the number of transplants, but also a tremendous reduction in hospital costs with less people on organ waiting lists. When less money is needed to treat patients waiting for body parts, hospitals can redistribute funds into other branches to buy new technology, hire more staff, or offer more treatment to patients, thus saving more lives. Unfortunately, the many people on the transplant list are slowly dying without any significant treatment. These people know that if they do not get any new organs soon, which many realize because they have been on the waiting list for extremely long with no end in sight, they most likely will have to resort to very dangerous ways of getting what they need. They are willing to pay any price so save their lives. This often leads them to the black market. The amount of people involved in the black market is increasing, but untrained people perform surgeries in non-sterile environments leading to risks of infection and possibly death. Another issue with the black market is many poor people become victimized by the wealthy and do not get the money they were promised before the surgery (Growing Market). If the market of human organs was legalized the surgeries would be safer and the money would be guaranteed, leading people away from the dangers of the black market. The black market is notorious for causing crime. Since most people that are in dyer need of an organ don’t care where they are getting it from, people begin stealing other people’s organs. Many people commit violent crimes or kill for other people’s organs and sell them for their own profit. If organs could be legally sold there would need to be proper identification and paperwork before the surgery could take place, making it so there is not profit in selling organs, therefore dramatically reducing the violent crimes taking place. The legalization would cause the sale of human organs on the black market to almost completely stop. Sadly, the organ transplant list is only growing with the passing time and if there are no changes in how the system is today the donor list will not increase with any significance. If the market for human organs is legalized it would cause an increase in the donor list, money brought into the hospitals and the government. It would decrease the list of people in need of a transplant, the crime rate for organ thefts, the deaths caused by black market surgeries, and could cause an end to the sales of human organs on the black market completely. Without a change people will continue to die waiting for organs they likely never had a chance to receive since the beginning. The legalization of the market for human organs could save many more lives than the organ waiting list is saving now. Works Cited â€Å"Growing Market for Human Organs Exploits Poor. † MSUToday. N. p. , n. d. Web. 27 Feb. 2013. Knox, Richard. â€Å"Should We Legalize the Market for Human Organs? † NPR. NPR, n. d. Web. 27 Feb. 2013. â€Å"Richard Knox. † N. p. , n. d. Web. 27 February 2013 â€Å"Should the Sale of Human Organs Be Legal? † a Debate. org. N. p. , n. d. Web. 27 Feb. 2013. How to cite Market for Human Organs, Papers

Five Step Decision Making Process free essay sample

You have just completed interviewing three candidates for an entry-level position in your organization. One candidate is the friend of a coworker who has implored you to give his friend a chance. The candidate is the weakest of the three but has sufficient skill and knowledge to adequately fill the position. Would you hire this candidate?Hiring the least qualified person for the job as opposed to the most qualified because they are a friend of another employee could impact the quality of work for the end user and possibly set a very bad example to the other employees within the company. In this situation there are a couple options with varying levels of ethics. First and most appropriately, I could sit down with Human Resources (HR) and discuss the situation, detailing my discomfort with being approached by my co-worker, with the option of including upper management.But I would personally try to keep it with HR unless they really wanted upper management involved. We will write a custom essay sample on Five Step Decision Making Process or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Second, although definitely not within ethical standards, there is approaching the co-worker who suggested the candidate, to discuss the position, the adequacy of the three candidates and suggest if you hire him he hopes that he pulls through for you and the company. I would go with a utilitarian approach when coming to my conclusion. With HR you can throw out ideas such as is the most qualified person actually right for the company. Just because someone is has the experience and the proper qualifications does not mean that they will fit and be the best choice in the company. This is something you will need to consider for the employee and the company as well. Does the company have a policy stating that the highest qualified candidates be hired? And if not, the discussion of how to approach how and why a candidate that is less qualified would be chosen for hire and would it be favoritism or how can it be justified without showing that you were just doing a favor for a co-worker.If the least qualified person is still qualified and seems like they may actually fit in better with the company, as certain personalities mesh into different environments better than others, they may be the best choice for the job in the big picture. Other things I would consider in this situation is whether or not the employee asking you to do this favor is a trust worthy worker and if hiring their friend and it doesn’t work out, what impact will this have on your working relationship.A last consideration I would have is which of the three people interviewed shows the greatest opportunity for advancement within the company since the position they are hiring on for is intro level. After evaluating all the criteria and coming to a final decision I would contact that person and let them know that they have been chosen and offer them the position and discuss the potential start date if they choose to accept the job. Once they have accepted the position and come into HR to finalize the paperwork and have a solid start date I would start with introducing them to other workers.Being the new person can be challenging at times so making them feel welcome is very important. Being a new person can be so challenging, assigning a sponsor to get them settled into their new department could also ease some of the anxiety of a new job. Keep track of the new employee by evaluating their work performance. The level of output is important, however, in order to keep that output on a positive level, maintaining positive employees is beneficial. Not only is employee evaluations important, but face to face contact makes a lasting impression on new employees.Is the person happy at this company and with their current position within the company? Does the employee show potential for future advancement by taking on additional tasks or inquiring about additional opportunities? How do other workers feel about working wi th this new employee? How well does the new worker actually perform with the other employees? Talking with employees, stopping in their work space and making face time occasionally to be more than a name to them and to make the company feel approachable will help to know where your employees are with their job and within the company.